@article {9998,
	title = {Functional and Visionary Leadership in Self-Managing Virtual Teams},
	journal = {Group \& Organization Management},
	volume = {46},
	year = {2021},
	month = {04/2021},
	pages = {424{\textendash}460},
	abstract = {<p>In this conceptual article, we present a theory of leadership in self-managing virtual teams. We describe leadership in this setting as a process that results in the creation, reinforcement and evolution of shared mental models and shared norms that influence team member behaviour towards the successful accomplishment of shared goals. We distinguish two types of leadership. We identify leadership that works within and reinforces existing models and norms to influence team contributions as {\textquotedblleft}functional{\textquotedblright} leadership. We identify leadership that results in changes in models and norms as {\textquotedblleft}visionary{\textquotedblright} leadership. We propose that successful self-managing virtual teams require both types of leadership and that they will exhibit a paradoxical combination of shared, distributed functional leadership complemented by strong, concentrated and centralized visionary leadership and that visionary leadership is enabled by functional leadership in the form of substantive team member contributions.</p>},
	keywords = {functional leadership, Leadership, Self-managing teams, structuration theory, virtual teams, visionary leadership},
	doi = {10.1177/1059601120955034},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/1059601120955034_0.pdf},
	author = {Eseryel, U. Yeliz and Kevin Crowston and Heckman, Robert}
}
@conference {Wei:2010,
	title = {The impact of national culture on knowledge sharing in global virtual collaboration},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS)},
	year = {2010},
	month = {12/2010},
	address = {St. Louis, MO, USA},
	keywords = {Knowledge Sharing, National Culture, Virtuality},
	author = {Kangning Wei and Kevin Crowston}
}
@article {Katzy:2008,
	title = {Competency rallying for technical innovation: The case of the Virtuelle Fabrik},
	journal = {Technovation},
	volume = {28},
	number = {10},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {679{\textendash}692},
	abstract = {Technology improves at an ever-increasing rate, but the speed at which firms can adapt their strategies and competencies to develop technological innovations and exploit market opportunities remains limited. While networks provide an option to increase agility through collaborative access to relevant external competencies, we know little about systematically managing such networks. This paper identifies a collaborative network process that we label competency rallying. We describe the set of inter-organizational routines involved in competency rallying in a case study of the interactions among the partners of the Virtuelle Fabrik, a case of an organized regional network in the manufacturing industry in Switzerland. We describe competency rallying as the (1) identification and development of competencies, (2) identification and facing of market opportunities, (3) marshalling of competencies, and (4) short-term cooperative effort for technological innovation and commercialization. The paper contributes a model that furthers the understanding of the organizational character of networks based on specific, learned network capabilities and which allows prediction of the likelihood of success of practical collaboration projects in networked organizations. },
	keywords = {Virtual Organization},
	doi = {10.1016/j.technovation.2007.11.003},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/TECH1410.pdf},
	author = {Bernhard Katzy and Kevin Crowston}
}
@proceedings {Katzy:2007,
	title = {Competency rallying processes in virtual organizations},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {67{\textendash}83},
	publisher = {Springer},
	address = {Portland, OR},
	abstract = {Firms face an environment changing at an increasingly rapid pace. Unfortunately, the speed at which organizations can adapt their strategies and competencies to exploit such opportunities remains limited. In this paper we weave together an external perspective on market-facing with an internal perspective on competency development and marshalling to describe the organizational activities necessary for firms to cooperate within a virtual organization. We argue that firms can address their individual limitations through a systematic process that we call {\textquotedblleft}competence rallying,{\textquotedblright} with which they can access market opportunities and additional needed competencies. Specifically, we present a local process theory of how one network of firms reliably engineers and delivers manufacturing projects using an inter-organizational process that works to meet short-term market opportunities. Our theory is grounded in the experiences of the Virtuelle Fabrik project, an organized network for regional cooperation in the manufacturing industry around the Bodensee in Europe. The success of manufacturing projects in a virtual organization is predicated on specific organizational activities in four phases of the competence rallying process: 1) identification and development of competencies, 2) identification and facing of market opportunities, 3) marshalling of competencies, and 4) a short-term cooperative effort.

The Virtuelle Fabrik project was started by the Institute for Technology Management, University of St. Gallen. Financial support was provided by The Swiss Commission for Scientific Research (KwF) and the Virtuelle Fabrik partner companies. The Virtuelle Fabrik project team included G{\"u}nter Schuh, Bernhard Katzy, Kai Millarg, Thomas Zehnder, Stefan Eisen, and {\r A}sa G{\"o}ransson, as well as managers from the partner firms. The authors thank all of the participants in the Virtuelle Fabrik for their contributions and in particular, for the many discussions that led to the concepts discussed in this paper. The authors take sole responsibility for the work presented here. This paper has benefited greatly from discussion with Paul van Fenema, Steven Sawyer, Ping Zhang, Robert Heckman, Barbara Kwasnik, and Gisela von Dran.
},
	keywords = {Virtual Organization},
	doi = {10.1007/978-0-387-73025-7_7},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/070227\%20vf\%20for\%20ifip.pdf},
	author = {Bernhard Katzy and Kevin Crowston},
	editor = {Kevin Crowston and Seiber, Sandra}
}
@conference {Watson-Manheim:2007a,
	title = {Distance Matters, Except When It Doesn{\textquoteright}t: Discontinuities in Virtual Work},
	booktitle = {Academy of Management Conference},
	year = {2007},
	address = {Philadelphia, PA},
	abstract = {Virtual work has become an increasingly common phenomenon in today{\textquoteright}s organizations. Substantial and continuing changes in organizational processes and IT infrastructure have increased the pace and intensity of working across traditionally impermeable boundaries, enabling diverse forms of collaboration. However, our understanding of the consequences and implications of virtual work still lags and research results have been contradictory. We suggest that some of these inconsistencies have been because the boundaries that characterize virtual work-time, space, culture, organization, and so forth-are objective demarcations that are not uniformly problematic. It is only when those working in virtual settings perceive a boundary to be a discontinuity that it hinders work processes. We develop a model of virtual work that differentiates between boundaries and discontinuities, which helps account for contradictory findings. By examining the process of virtual work in more detail, we can uncover issues that are the underlying cause of problems, rather than deal with the more obvious symptoms that can mask underlying problem. Our model has implications both for research and for those working in virtual environments. },
	keywords = {Discontinuity, Virtuality},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/13412.pdf},
	author = {Mary Beth Watson-Manheim and Chudoba, Katherine M. and Kevin Crowston}
}
@conference {Chudoba:2005a,
	title = {Meet Me in Cyberspace: Meetings in the Distributed Work Environment},
	booktitle = {Academy of Management Conference, OCIS Division},
	year = {2005},
	address = {Honolulu, HI},
	abstract = {Meetings have long been a critical activity in contemporary work life. At least since Mintzberg{\textquoteright}s classic study of managerial behavior, researchers have documented and practitioners have bemoaned the amount of time spent in meetings. Despite these problems, meetings are becoming even more common in organizations. Teams are now found throughout the organization, from the manufacturing floor to senior management. Organizational work increasingly occurs in teams, with participation in meetings becoming a core work activity. How are these meetings conducted? What are the implications of the increased use of ICT in these meetings? As more and more members of organizational teams are distributed and must make extensive use of ICT in order to work together, these questions become even more important.

Using the device of genre system, an interrelated set of socially constructed communicative actions, we examine meetings from the perspective of employees at a company in the technology industry. We began with the questions: Are meetings in the 21st century different from Mintzberg{\textquoteright}s conceptualization? If so, how? Drawing on data gathered from interviews that used entries in the employees{\textquoteright} electronic calendar system, we found that employees are attending a large number of meetings (20\% reported more than 25 meetings in a week) and spending significant time in meetings (27\% reported more than 30 hours in a week in meetings). The majority of meetings included non-collocated participants and extensive use of ICT. We explore the implications of these and other findings for collaboration and ICT support.},
	keywords = {Computer-Mediated Communication, Virtuality},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/academy2005calendar.pdf},
	author = {Chudoba, Katherine M. and Mary Beth Watson-Manheim and Lee, Chei Sian and Kevin Crowston}
}
@conference {Watson-Manheim:2004,
	title = {The paradox of discontinuities and continuities: Toward a more comprehensive view of virtuality},
	booktitle = {Academy of Management Conference},
	year = {2004},
	address = {New Orleans, LA},
	abstract = {Understanding the fundamental dynamics in virtual work environments is a challenge for
organizational researchers. We propose that virtuality is, paradoxically, generally composed of
factors that simultaneously simplify and complicate the work environment. We use the
metaphorical construction of continuities and discontinuities to explore this phenomenon, and
show that considering boundaries as creating discontinuities in work environments enhances our
understanding in two ways. First, the language of discontinuities allows us to employ the device
of paradox to explore the underlying dynamics of virtuality. This device makes it easier to
examine the more complex reality of virtual work. Second, consideration of discontinuities
draws attention to possible problems encountered in virtual work environments and ways that
individuals and teams may compensate for the tension and differences implicit in discontinuities;
in other words, paying attention to the seemingly logical antithesis of discontinuities, or
continuities. By taking a process perspective, one can focus on the behavioral component of
work, which in turn, has a subjective component. An example from a field study of a global
virtual team is examined to illustrate the usefulness of the discontinuities/continuities framework.},
	keywords = {Discontinuity, Virtuality},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/paradox2004.pdf},
	author = {Mary Beth Watson-Manheim and Chudoba, Katherine M. and Kevin Crowston}
}
@article {Watson-Manheim:2002a,
	title = {Discontinuities and continuities: A new way to understand virtual work},
	journal = {Information, Technology \& People},
	volume = {15},
	number = {3},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {191{\textendash}209},
	abstract = {"Virtual{\textquoteright}{\textquoteright} is a potent buzzword, freely applied to many situations, with many meanings. In this exploratory study, we develop a more precise understanding of "virtual{\textquoteright}{\textquoteright} to describe changing work environments. Specifically, we propose a framework to classify work environments based on the type of discontinuities involved. Discontinuities are gaps or a lack of coherence in aspects of work. The framework allows us to compare research across different topics and work settings. We use the framework to classify 75 published articles on virtual work environments or earlier, related research streams. We observed that many studies were simultaneously addressing existing or emerging continuities, factors or strategies for overcoming discontinuities. The focus of "virtual{\textquoteright}{\textquoteright} is on changes in the work environment; however, our analysis suggests the need to be equally aware of factors that have not changed and which may become more critical with the introduction of discontinuities.},
	keywords = {Discontinuity, Virtuality},
	doi = {10.1108/09593840210444746},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/itp2002.pdf},
	author = {Mary Beth Watson-Manheim and Chudoba, Katherine M. and Kevin Crowston}
}
@conference {Chudoba:2002,
	title = {Discontinuities and Post-Bureaucratic Organizing: A Framework and Research Propositions},
	booktitle = {Academy of Management Conference},
	year = {2002},
	address = {Denver, CO},
	abstract = {Some organization theorists argue that prevailing theories of organizing are based primarily on detailed observations of bureaucratic work, but that the nature of work today is sufficiently different to bring the applicability of these theories into question. They note in particular the growth in white collar and service workers, the rise of contingent work and the increased application of computer technologies. While various kinds of non-bureaucratic work such as project-based work and non-traditional employees such as contractors is not new, the pace and intensity of work enabled by communications technologies suggest that a postbureaucratic theory of work may be appropriate. Indeed, virtual has become shorthand for novel work arrangements involving telecommuters or virtual organizations. We propose that an increasingly important characteristic of non-bureaucratic work settings is the fact that the workers in these environments face discontinuities, that is, a lack of coherence in aspects of their work, such as the work setting, task, relations with other workers or managers. In this paper, we argue that studying how discontinuities have been managed in a variety of settings may offer insights into the nature of post-bureaucratic work. The first contribution of this paper is a framework that illuminates commonalties in diverse non-bureaucratic work settings and thus suggests how the existing research in these settings might be integrated. Based on this framework, we then consider how various existing theories might be integrated into a theory of post-bureaucratic organizing. We conclude by proposing a set of questions for future research based on this perspective.},
	keywords = {Discontinuity, Virtuality},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/academy2002.pdf},
	author = {Chudoba, Katherine M. and Kevin Crowston and Mary Beth Watson-Manheim}
}
@proceedings {2002,
	title = {A New Perspective on "Virtual":Analyzing Discontinuities in the Work Environment},
	year = {2002},
	address = {Kona, HI},
	abstract = {The word "virtual" has become a potent buzzword and, as such, is freely applied to many situations, with many meanings. As a result, it, like other buzzwords, is in danger of meaning nothing. In this paper, we develop a more precise understanding of the use of the word "virtual" to describe changing work environments. Our specific contribution is to propose a framework to classify these different work environments based on the type of discontinuities involved. This framework enables us to compare research across a variety of different topics and work settings and further develop a foundation for future research investigating managing and working in this new environment. In this paper; we test our framework by using it to classify 75 published articles on virtual work environments and from earlier research streams.},
	keywords = {Virtuality},
	doi = {10.1109/HICSS.2002.994446},
	attachments = {https://crowston.syr.edu./sites/crowston.syr.edu/files/hicss2002.pdf},
	author = {Mary Beth Watson-Manheim and Kevin Crowston and Chudoba, Katherine M.}
}
@book {,
	title = {Virtual Operations and Agile Organizations: workshop proceedings },
	year = {1997},
	note = {European Agility Forum, August 21-22 1997},
	publisher = {ASLIB},
	organization = {ASLIB},
	address = {Rotterdam, The Netherlands },
	keywords = {Virtual Organization},
	editor = {Bernhard Katzy and Kevin Crowston and Kumar, Kuldeep and van Fenema, P.}
}
